The spray model has been validated for a wide range of operating conditions and nozzle designs. Representative examples are given below.

1. Non-evaporating and Evaporating Diesel Spray

Diesel spray injected into quiescent air under a variety of injection pressures, orifice hole diameters, back pressure and temperatures, fuel composition and initial fuel temperature. Validation is performed against experimental data for the liquid and vapour penetration.

a. Comparison between model predictions and experimental results for the temporal variation of spray tip penetration under non-evaporating and evaporating conditions, for three nominal injection pressures. Both liquid and vapour phase penetration are shown.

b. Comparison between model predictions and experimental results for the liquid length under evaporating conditions as function of air density and temperature.

c. Comparison between model predictions and experimental results for the liquid length under evaporating conditions as function of injection pressure and nozzle hole diameter.

2. Non-evaporating and Evaporating Gasoline Pressure-Swirl Atomiser Spray

Hollow cone sprays injected from pressure-swirl atomisers for gasoline engines under different back pressure and temperature conditions. Validation against experimental data for liquid penetration, droplet size and velocity.

Comparison between model predictions and CCD image under non-evaporating conditions

Comparison between model predictions and experimental data for the size distribution of a pressure-swirl spray under three different back pressure/temperature conditions.

Predictions and CCD images of sprays injected from pressure-swirl atomisers inside the engine cylinder of a fully-transparent direct injection gasoline engine during the induction stroke. Images and calculations show impingement of initially injected and poorly atomised spray, usually referred to as 'pre-spray'.

3. Non-evaporating Gasoline Pintle-type Atomiser Spray

Development of stratified overall lean spray-guided direct injection gasoline engines depends on precise injection timing and repeatable fuel spray characteristics at the spark-plug at the time of ignition. Optimisation of pintle-type injectors producing hollow-cone sprays provide  specific benefits for such applications. The spray model has been validated against experimental data for spray shape, droplet size and velocity.

Predictions and CCD image of a spray injected from outward-opening pintle-type nozzles. The string-structure originating at the nozzle exit is visible.

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